Classification of the Primate Order showing the theoretical evolutionary relationships

Source: 

Spencer, John J, and Joseph B Aceves. Instructor's Manual To Accompany Introduction To Anthropology, 

Joseph B. Aceves And H. Gill King. General Learning Press, 1979.

Geological Time Scale

Source: 

"Geologic Time | Periods, Time Scale, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica, 2022, 

https://www.britannica.com/science/geologic-time.

Journeys Through Geological Time

Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism

Cultural relativism : 

• Cultural Relativism/ Cultural determinism approach was first formulated by Franz Boas in North America in the 19th century. He says no culture should be judged by the standards of another. Cultural relativism views people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture. It places a priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as “strange” or “exotic.” Any part of a culture must be viewed from within its cultural context-not that of the observer or the notion that there are no universal standards by which all cultures may be evaluated. Cultures must be analyzed with reference to their own histories and cultural traits understood in terms of the cultural whole. (IGNOU)
• J.F. Lafitau (1724) - insisted that alien ways of life should be observed and described not according to prevailing European standards of what is proper/moral, but by consideration of the conditions under which these ways of life exist.
• The anthropological practice of suspending judgment and seeking to understand another culture on its own terms sympathetically enough so that the culture appears to be a coherent and meaningful design for living.  
• Examine each culture within the context of its own beliefs.
• Acknowledges that other societies are, like our own, reasonable responses to the circumstances they must deal with.
• The notion that judgments should not be made concerning the merits of one way of life over another.
• The attempt to understand and evaluate each cultural system in terms of its own internally consistent logic. (Miller et al.)
• The argument that behavior in a particular culture should not be judged by the standards of another. (Kottak)
• Resistance to 'universal' assumptions about socio-cultural processes.
• The proposition that cultural differences should not be judged by absolute standards. (A History of Anthropological theory)

(Relativism - judgments, truths, or moral values have no absolutes, and can only be understood relative to the situation/ individuals involved.)

Ethnocentrism : 

• The opinion that one’s own way of life is natural or correct and the only true way of being fully human.
• Creates prejudice against other ethnic groups.
• Tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to apply its own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures. (Kottak)
• Scholar's own moral system formed the basis by which other phenomena are judged. 
• The tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of one's own culture. (Miller et al.)
• The white Europeans presenting their own culture as a benchmark for civilization put all other societies on an evolutionary scale. They justified each society as being at different levels of evolution based on their technological knowledge. Thus, giving rise to ‘cultural ethnocentrism’. This concept devalued the comparative method, as it was used mainly to accentuate the scholars' own society as ‘superior’ to the societies of the people under study. (IGNOU)
• In his book “Folkways” Sociologist William Graham Sumner coined the term ethnocentrism to refer to the tendency to assume that one’s culture and way of life are superior to all others. (Sumner 1906)
• As students of Anthropology, we must shed our cultural biases or the assumption that our own culture is superior. Only when we accept our own culture as one among the many other cultures that exist in human societies across the World we will be able to conduct a proper study. 

References: Collected

Branches of - Physical/Biological Anthropology

• Human Growth and Development : This branch of physical anthropology concerns the process of growing to maturity (in biological terms: growth from a one-cell zygote to an adult human being).

• Understanding -
• different stages of growth
• patterns of growth
• effect of 
• nutrition
• environment
• genetic factors (influencing growth)
• Growth studies of populations reflect 
• variation amongst them
• growth rate of the nation

Photo by Omar Lopez on Unsplash

• Human Evolution : This branch, as the name suggests, revolves around the origin and evolution of Homo sapiens as a distinct species. The word “human” in the framework of human evolution speak of the genus Homo. In order to understand human evolution we study hominids also. 

Photo by Eugene Zhyvchik on Unsplash

• Human Osteology : The study of human bones. Evidences concerning osteology are frequently applied in forensic science. It holds important information in arenas like health, disease, physique, genetics of early populations, identification of unknown remains, criminal investigations, war crimes, etc.

Photo by Joyce McCown on Unsplash

• Human Ecology : A biological discipline that deals with the interactions between organisms and their environment. 
• Environment = Physical Environment (temperature, water, wind, soil acidity, etc.) + Biological Environment
• Human Adaptation ( physiologic, developmental, genetic) to environmental stresses and variation is part of human ecology.
• Human beings are the most versatile species on Earth which can adapt to any environment. However, many other human ecological developments are probable in future. The growth of human population and how this growth is accommodated, the way they utilize these resources yet preserve the biodiversity is yet to be comprehended.

Photo by Ehimetalor Akhere Unuabona on Unsplash

• Human Diversity : Concerned with the study of human evolution and human biological variation. Human evolution involves extensive work on the discovery, analysis, and description of fossilized human remains. This mainly aids to identify the differences between humans and their nonhuman ancestors and how did present man emerge. To achieve this, it involves the comparative analysis of genetic codes. 

Photo by Clay Banks on Unsplash

• Human Variation : The term human variation is gaining popularity over its historical predecessor “race” in anthropology because of the exploitation of the term. It is suggested to use gene frequencies and biological traits of human populations by their geographic area. 

Photo by Christophe Maertens on Unsplash

• Human Genetics : Study of heredity, process by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring. Involves the study of inheritance of gene (unit of hereditary in humans, common factor of most human traits). Provides information to the questions about :
• human nature
• understanding diseases and their effective treatment
• understand genetics of human life

           (Incorporates a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling.)

Photo by National Cancer Institute on Unsplash

• Anthropological Genetics : Encompasses patterns of genetic similarity among different human populations to deduce demographic history. Genetic methods used to learn about human in the course of 
• its deviation from apes
• magnitude and how hominid population in geographical area originated
• initial migrations of anatomically modern humans.

Photo by National Cancer Institute on Unsplash

• Population Genetics : Concerns with genetic structure of populations, i.e. 
• frequency of alleles (alternate form of genes)
• and its genotypes (genetic constitution)

Photo by Joseph Chan on Unsplash

• Genetic Anthropology : Deals with combining DNA data with available physical evidence and past histories of civilizations. This facilitates scientists to assemble through existing genetic information in elucidating how the modern day Homo sapiens evolved through the millennia.

Photo by National Cancer Institute on Unsplash

• Nutritional Anthropology : Describes how particular social and cultural factor place people at risk for nutritional disorder or identifying health problems related to nutrition. It is gaining importance mainly due to concern and consciousness of people towards health. Anthropologists have contributed to the specialized fields of nutrition at a more holistic perspective, based on the historical, direct observation, and documentary accounts. The significance of this field lies in assessing health status of any population.

Photo by ja ma on Unsplash

• Molecular Anthropology : Comparatively newer branch of physical anthropology which deals with the molecular analysis. 
• It makes easier to understand the evolutionary links between ancient and modern human populations, as well as between contemporary species. 
• This enables to determine the closeness or distance in relationship between populations or within populations.
• Certain similarities in genetic makeup let molecular anthropologists determine whether or not different groups of people share a common geographical origin. (This paves way for anthropologists to trace patterns of migration and settlement, which gives an insight as to how contemporary populations have formed and progressed over time.)
• Plays a very important role in establishing the evolutionary tree of humans and other primates, including closely related species like chimpanzees and gorillas

Photo by Terry Vlisidis on Unsplash

• Forensic Anthropology : Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal scenario; when in a criminal case, victim’s remains are unidentifiable or in the advanced stages of decomposition, forensic anthropology helps in identification of the individual. (The term “forensic” refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law.)

Photo by Immo Wegmann on Unsplash

• Physiological Anthropology : Human physiology is a scientific study of the
• mechanical
• physical
• biochemical 

functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells which constitute them.)

Photo by jesse orrico on Unsplash

• Dental Anthropology : Scientific study of people (living/extinct primitive relatives) using the evidence of teeth. 

Practicing dentists, anatomists, radiologists, forensic scientists, biochemists and geneticists, archaeologists, paleontologists and zoologists apart from anthropologists are actively working in the field of Dental anthropology.

Photo by The Humble Co. on Unsplash

• Primatology : Concerned with the study of Primates. Primates studied with the hope to gain more insight into human nature. Study of hominids includes all ape-like ancestors of man and the other great apes. Modern primatology boasts of newer and extremely diverse science ranging from - anatomical studies of primate ancestors and field studies of primates in their natural habitat, to - experiments in animal psychology and ape language.

Photo by Andre Mouton on Unsplash

• Paleo primatology : Paleo primatologists take the assistance of fossil specimens by collecting, describing, and interpreting them them phylogenetically and functionally. As it is well understood that man is a primate evolved from non-human primates. The nonhuman primates are link to human physical history and status as mammals.

Photo by Dominik Scythe on Unsplash

• Paleoanthropology : is a branch of paleontology and anthropology which seeks to understand the early development of anatomically modern humans, a process known as hominization, through the reconstruction of evolutionary kinship lines within the family Hominidae, working from biological evidence (such as petrified skeletal remains, bone fragments, footprints) and cultural evidence (such as stone tools, artifacts, and settlement localities).

Photo by Hikmet Çolak on Unsplash

• Anthropometry : : Anthropometry as the name suggests consists of Greek word “anthropos” which means man, and “metry” meaning measure. In literal sense : understanding of physical variation, measurement of humans. In physical anthropology : measuring of the human individual. Plays extensive role in industrial design, clothing design, defense equipment, ergonomics and architecture. 

• Ergonomics : : Ergonomics is derived from two Greek words, “ergon” meaning work, and “nomoi” meaning natural laws, which means the science of work and a person’s relationship to that work. Fundamentally, the study of design equipment and devices that the human body, its movements, and how to carry about the work. (proper ergonomic design needed to avoid recurrent strain injuries)

• Demography : Scientific study of uniqueness and movement relevant to the human population illustrated by -
• size
• growth rate
• density
• vital statistics
• distribution of a specified population

Demographer must know both

• how to scientifically obtain information
• how to interpret it relatively

Demography is the basic statistics of human population which can be applied to any kind of human population which does not remain static. (i.e. changes over time/space) 

Photo by Ryoji Iwata on Unsplash

Reference: 

Holism in Anthropology

Man is the only creature in the animal kingdom having two aspects: biological and cultural.

• Anthropology explores both - the biological and cultural aspects of man.
• In contrast to other disciplines like psychology, economics, zoology, and others, anthropology does not only study one aspect of human life but covers all dimensions of humanity. Only anthropology explores the entire panorama of human experiences.
• As well as studying humanity as a whole, it also seeks to comprehend the differences within it. That is the diversity and variation among human beings - across time and space.

Thus, Anthropology is the 'holistic science of man' --- a science of the sum of human existence.

It is this multifaceted holistic approach that makes it unique and accounts for the wide scope of the field. 

Anthropology has a 'four-field' approach that encompasses:

1. Physical/Biological Anthropology
2. Social/Cultural Anthropology
3. Archaeological Anthropology
4. Linguistic Anthropology

Each of these unique subdisciplines contributes to the understanding of different aspects of human beings in a holistic way. 

Examples: 

• Capacity for learning a language is genetically programmed in our DNA (our biology); however, our environment determines which language/s we end up learning (our culture).
• Anthropologists study Kinship not only as a cultural aspect. but also studies the variety of kinship patterns in different societies across the World.
• Anthropology is equally interested in the lifeways of a Polynesian farmer, and a Japanese businessman.

Anthropological study has the deepest possible time frame - starting from the earliest beginnings of human ancestors millions of years ago to the present. The broad time frame covered by anthropology is important because they believe any insights about contemporary human adaptations, either biological or cultural should be made with eye to past adaptations. 

To conclude, anthropology does not limit itself to

• any particular aspect of humanity
• any particular group of people
• any particular period in time

It is this holistic approach through which anthropologists are able to gain an understanding of humanity.

References: Collected from various sources. 

What is Anthropology?

• Study of all humans in all times and places.
• Anthropology studies human population throughout time and space - from the earliest humans to modern city dwellers - and attempts to incorporate knowledge of them into meaningful understanding of humanity. (Miller et al.)
• Only one of the sciences of human beings, bringing together the common aims of many disciplines which describe human beings.
• Science of human being, study of man/mankind (includes both men and women) in time and space.
• Anthropology confronts basic questions of human existence and survival.
• Discipline of infinite curiosity about human beings.
• Anthropology is the myth of humankind, an explanation of our nature.
• Anthropology is the research of human beings and human behaviour and communities in the present and past. The abstract term anthropology first appeared in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann during the German Renaissance. It was derived from the combining forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos (human) and lógos(study), which began to be used in English by the early 18th century.6 With development, many disciplines are related to anthropology nowadays, such as sociocultural, biological, archaeological, and linguistic fields. (The Anthropology Reflection on Space and Place, BilingYang)
• Anthropology is the study of humanity across time and space. Anthropologists study every possible realm of human experience, thought, activity, and organization. Human as we are, we can only engage in social and natural worlds through our human minds and human bodies. Even engagement with nonhuman realms such as astronomy and botany is conditioned by our human senses and human cognition and thus varies across different societies and different time periods. You may be thinking, If anthropology is the human aspect of absolutely everything, then does anthropology encompass the other social disciplines, such as political science, religious studies, and economics? This is not the case. Certainly, anthropologists are frequently multidisciplinary, meaning that while their research and teaching are focused within the discipline of anthropology, they also engage with other disciplines and work with researchers and teachers in other fields. But the way that scholars in the other social disciplines approach their subject matter is different from the way anthropologists approach those same subjects. The distinctive approach of anthropology relies on a central narrative, or story, about humanity as well as a set of scholarly commitments. This central story and these common commitments hold the discipline together, enabling anthropologists to combine insights from diverse fields into one complex portrait of what it means to be human. Anthropology is everything, but it’s not just anything. Anthropology is the study of humanity guided by a distinctive narrative and set of commitments. (Introduction to Anthropology, Open Stax)

• "Anthropology is the most humanistic of the sciences and the most scientific of the humanities." -Alfred L. Kroeber.

References: Collected