Modern thought on Races - The Ethnic Groups

Few anthropologists and biologists, in the 1st half of the 20th Century, believed that it was difficult to use zoological nomenclature for classifying humans into groups. According to them, classifying humans into races, was not a creative endeavor to examine human variation. Anthropologist Ashley Montagu and biologist Julian Huxley were two significant opponents of using the term 'race'. They noted, there were no clear boundaries in the continuous stream of human variation. They suggested that human variation and relationships among human groups must be studied using Darwinian natural selection and concepts such as mutation, isolation, random genetic drift, endogamy, etc. 

Following Huxley, Deniker, and Huddon, Montagu adopted the term 'ethnic group' as a replacement for 'race' in 1942.

Following World War 2, UNESCO issued a statement suggesting to replace the term 'race' with 'ethnic group', including both; scientific opposition to race theories, and a moral condemnation of racism. 

During this time, some anthropologists suggested that population should be the basic unit of study of human diversity, and adaptation subjected to specific environmental constraints. 

As these populations adapted to these particular environments, they came to manifest traits that were unique. Thus, races could be viewed as episodes in the evolutionary process. (Hulse, 1962)

Despite the paradigm shift in the construct of race, the racist view of humanity has not changed, even in the 21st century. The outcome of which is, ethnic violence, warfare, terrorism, and genocide.

Reference: IGNOU study materials

Holism in Anthropology

Man is the only creature in the animal kingdom having two aspects: biological and cultural.

• Anthropology explores both - the biological and cultural aspects of man.
• In contrast to other disciplines like psychology, economics, zoology, and others, anthropology does not only study one aspect of human life but covers all dimensions of humanity. Only anthropology explores the entire panorama of human experiences.
• As well as studying humanity as a whole, it also seeks to comprehend the differences within it. That is the diversity and variation among human beings - across time and space.

Thus, Anthropology is the 'holistic science of man' --- a science of the sum of human existence.

It is this multifaceted holistic approach that makes it unique and accounts for the wide scope of the field. 

Anthropology has a 'four-field' approach that encompasses:

1. Physical/Biological Anthropology
2. Social/Cultural Anthropology
3. Archaeological Anthropology
4. Linguistic Anthropology

Each of these unique subdisciplines contributes to the understanding of different aspects of human beings in a holistic way. 

Examples: 

• Capacity for learning a language is genetically programmed in our DNA (our biology); however, our environment determines which language/s we end up learning (our culture).
• Anthropologists study Kinship not only as a cultural aspect. but also studies the variety of kinship patterns in different societies across the World.
• Anthropology is equally interested in the lifeways of a Polynesian farmer, and a Japanese businessman.

Anthropological study has the deepest possible time frame - starting from the earliest beginnings of human ancestors millions of years ago to the present. The broad time frame covered by anthropology is important because they believe any insights about contemporary human adaptations, either biological or cultural should be made with eye to past adaptations. 

To conclude, anthropology does not limit itself to

• any particular aspect of humanity
• any particular group of people
• any particular period in time

It is this holistic approach through which anthropologists are able to gain an understanding of humanity.

References: Collected from various sources.