Discuss how Futhwa had looked at traditional remedies in his work in South Africa.

Setho is the indigenous faith of the people of Afrika. Motho is an individual who practices Setho. Botho is the value system encompassing the lifestyle and norms of Batho(plural for Motho). Motho is a member of society, and this is an important element because in Setho individuality is not celebrated. Individuals are part of society and therefore must abide by the laws of society. Individuality is only acceptable within the confines of society. So long it does not compete with the interests of society. So Botho is a practical manifestation of how people live in Afrika and is an integral part of a peoples lifestyle.
Fezekile Futhwa’s book entitled “Setho- Afrikan Thought & Belief System”  is a description of this indigenous belief system using Basotho as the reference point, that is, the people living in the southern regions of the vast interior plateau between the eastern escarpment and the arid western regions in the south of the Limpopo river in South Africa.
 
A part of his work talks about the traditional remedies of the people in South Africa, as a focus area of indigenous knowledge system. He maintains that it is important to retain the knowledge and abilities of ordinary remedies for common ailments that are inherent in African communal life.
All members of society are taught, from a young age, what plants and herbs to use for these ailments such as flu, cold, headache, stomach ache, snake bites, fever, nose bleeding and the like. This is knowledge that ensures all in society are healthy as no one need consult a specialist for them (Futhwa 2011:96-97). Prevention is given a higher importance than the vocation of these specialists whose jobs is to worry about more serious ailments.
 
The knowledge of traditional medicine by medical professionals is paramount to the health profession and the maintenance of a healthy society. Traditional medical practitioners, called traditional doctors, are a unique form of profession whose qualification and trade works totally different from the normal accepted western professional life of vocational and academic knowledge. There are people who practice traditional medicine because it is hereditary, as something inherited from those who came before them. There are those who practice it because of their knowledge of traditional medicine. And then there those who are qualified traditional practitioners who have undergone proper training. It is estimated that over 70 percent of the South Afrikan population uses traditional medicine as their primary health plan. Clearly, traditional medicine plays a crucial role in the lives of South Afrikans.
 
The danger of not protecting this institution is the now prevalent practice of fake and unqualified traditional doctors. This does more harm, not just to the reputation of traditional doctors, but to the welfare of society since the majority of the people use traditional doctors.
 
Fezekile Futhwa maintains that it is important to retain the knowledge and abilities of ordinary remedies for common ailments that are inherent in African communal life. The thought behind his work is, the need to document people’s knowledge, as  there is every possibility that it would come to an end.

Reference:

IGNOU MA Anthropology Materials

Random.

• Since the dawn of civilization, humankind has recognized the influence of heredity and applied its principles to the improvement of cultivated crops and domestic animals. A Babylonian tablet more than 6,000 years old, for example, shows pedigrees of horses and indicates possible inherited characteristics. Other old carvings show cross-pollination of date palm trees. Most of the mechanisms of heredity, however, remained a mystery until the 19th century, when genetics as a systematic science began. 
• note: remember that influence of heredity was recognized much earlier, but not the mechanisms.

Winchester, A.M.. "genetics". Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Feb. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/science/genetics. Accessed 16 March 2023.

• Anthropology is the study of human lives as they unfold through time and across space.
• Anthropology is conceptually and methodologically extensive and thus is broadly applicable to virtually any topical domain.

Semi-structured interviews in Anthropological research

Semi-structured interviews initiate natural discourse, or communication. It is a very effective process in anthropological research, as well as challenging. The intention is to attempt to get the participant/ informant/ interviewee to converse about the topic, the researcher is interested in, without overly controlling. For example, if the investigator is inquiring about environmental sustainability, then the questions are oriented in a way to try to get the people to talk in, around, top, and over - that topic. This method is based on the use of an Interview Guide, a set of clear instructions and open questions. 

This method is also useful when there won't be a second chance to interview the same person again. Semi-structured interviewing works very well in projects where you are dealing with high-level bureaucrats and elite members of a community— people who are accustomed to efficient use of their time. It demonstrates that you are fully in control of what you want from an interview but leaves both you and your respondent free to follow new leads. It shows that you are prepared and competent but that you are not trying to exercise excessive control. (Bernard, 2011)

References:

NaSESYNC (2016) Anthropological research methods, YouTube. YouTube.

Bernard, H.R. (2011) Research methods in anthropology. Lanham: AltaMira Press. 

Why study 'Primitive Societies' ?

From: 'Social Anthropology' by E.E. Evans Pritchard

What are 'Primitive Societies' ?

We are sometimes criticized for giving so much of our time to the study of these primitive societies. It is suggested that inquiry into problems of our own society might be more useful. This may be so, but for various reasons, primitive societies have long held the attention of those interested in the study of social institutions. They attracted the notice of philosophers in the eighteenth century chiefly because they furnished examples of what was supposed to be a man living in a state of nature before the institution of civil government. They engaged the attention of anthropologists in the nineteenth century because it was believed that they provided important clues in the search for the origins of institutions. Later anthropologists were interested in them because it was held that they displayed institutions in their simplest forms and that it is a sound method to proceed from the examination of the more simple to the examination of the more complex, in which what has been learnt from the study of the more simple would be an aid. This last reason for interest in primitive societies gained in weight as the so-called functional anthropology today developed, for the more it is regarded as the task of social anthropology to study social institutions as interdependent parts of social systems, the more it is seen to be an advantage to be able to study those societies which are structurally so simple, and culturally so homogeneous, that they can be directly observed as wholes, before attempting to study complex civilized societies where this is not possible. Moreover, it is a matter of experience that it is easier to make observations among people with cultures unlike our own, the otherness in their way of life at once engaging attention and that it is more likely that interpretations will be objective. Another, and very cogent, reason for studying primitive societies at the present time is that they are rapidly being transformed and must be studied soon or never. These vanishing social systems are unique structural variations, a study of which aids us very considerably in understanding the nature of human society because in a comparative study of institutions, the number of societies studied is less significant than their range of variation. Quite apart from that consideration, the study of primitive societies has intrinsic value. They are interesting in themselves in that they provide descriptions of the way of life, the values, and the beliefs of people living without what we have come to regard as the minimum requirements of comfort and civilization.

We, therefore, feel it an obligation to make a systematic study of as many of these primitive societies as we can while there is still an opportunity to do so. There are a vast number of primitive societies and very few indeed have yet been studied intensively by anthropologists, for such studies take a long time and anthropologists are a very small body.

But though we give chief attention to primitive societies I must make it clear that we do not restrict our attention to them.

What are 'Primitive Societies' ?

From: 'Social Anthropology' by E.E. Evans Pritchard

The word 'primitive' in the sense in which it has become established in anthropological literature does not mean that the societies it qualifies are either earlier in time or inferior to other kinds of societies. As far as we know, primitive societies have just as long a history as our own, and while they are less developed than our society in some respects they are often more developed in others. This being so, the word was perhaps an unfortunate choice, but it has now been too widely accepted as a technical term to be avoided. It suffices to say at this stage that when anthropologists use it they do so in reference to those societies which are small in scale with regard to numbers, territory, and range of social contacts, and which have by comparison with more advanced societies a simple technology and economy and little specialization of social function. Some anthropologists would add further criteria, particularly the absence of literature, and hence of any systematic art, science, or theology. 

Why study 'Primitive Societies' ?

Photo by Bob Brewer on Unsplash

Modern thought on Races - The Ethnic Groups

Few anthropologists and biologists, in the 1st half of the 20th Century, believed that it was difficult to use zoological nomenclature for classifying humans into groups. According to them, classifying humans into races, was not a creative endeavor to examine human variation. Anthropologist Ashley Montagu and biologist Julian Huxley were two significant opponents of using the term 'race'. They noted, there were no clear boundaries in the continuous stream of human variation. They suggested that human variation and relationships among human groups must be studied using Darwinian natural selection and concepts such as mutation, isolation, random genetic drift, endogamy, etc. 

Following Huxley, Deniker, and Huddon, Montagu adopted the term 'ethnic group' as a replacement for 'race' in 1942.

Following World War 2, UNESCO issued a statement suggesting to replace the term 'race' with 'ethnic group', including both; scientific opposition to race theories, and a moral condemnation of racism. 

During this time, some anthropologists suggested that population should be the basic unit of study of human diversity, and adaptation subjected to specific environmental constraints. 

As these populations adapted to these particular environments, they came to manifest traits that were unique. Thus, races could be viewed as episodes in the evolutionary process. (Hulse, 1962)

Despite the paradigm shift in the construct of race, the racist view of humanity has not changed, even in the 21st century. The outcome of which is, ethnic violence, warfare, terrorism, and genocide.

Reference: IGNOU study materials

Allopatric Speciation

Mayr (1970) defined speciation as 'the creation of species'. Species can be defined as one of the basic units of biological classification, a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. The process of speciation is possible by a few mechanisms, one of them being - Allopatric Speciation.

Video by Deeana Arts: https://www.pexels.com/video/green-tree-4513650/

In this scenario, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations by some - geographic barrier / extrinsic barrier / unfavourable habitat. Once a barrier is placed, speciation is only a matter of time (e.g. mountain range for terrestrial animals, land mass for aquatic animals). The geographical barrier leads to reproductive isolation and eventually reproductive barrier. The organism undergoes evolutionary change over many generations because:

• they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures,
• different mutations arise in them,
• they independently undergo genetic drift.

When they come back into contact, they are no longer capable of exchanging genes. 

Example - Northern Spotted Owl and Mexican Spotted Owl

Photo by Andy Chilton on Unsplash

Physical Anthropology

Physical anthropology, also known as biological anthropology, is the anthropological counterpart to the various biological sciences that deal with the study of human beings. Physical anthropology studies living human beings and also, non-human primates, along with extinct relatives and ancestors of humans, in different environmental stresses and conditions that exist, and existed, in the World. The two main aspects of study of this branch of anthropology are; human evolution and human variation. 

Human origin and evolution are one of the chief concerns of physical anthropologists. Through analysis of fossils and observation of living primates, they try to trace man's ancestry and understand his relationship with other living beings. Physical anthropology also tries to provide a comparative perspective on human uniqueness by placing Homo sapiens in the context of other living primates. The other major aim of physical anthropology is to understand human diversity and variation. being members of the same species, there is significant biological variation among the Homo sapiens. Not only visible traits but also biochemical factors such as blood type and susceptibility to diseases. Human beings have covered nearly all kinds of geographical zones of the World, hence the study of human adaptation is also an important part of physical anthropology. 

The initial concern of physical anthropology however was to describe the variation of a few features in human beings, mainly referring to measurements, computing indices and other statistics. Today, it not only describes the variation of hundreds of features but also encompasses the entire history and nature of biological change among human beings. This represents an enormous expansion in its scope. Because of the wide scope, physical anthropology can be divided into subbranches, each focusing on a different dimension of what it means to be human - from a biological perspective. Refer : Branches of - Physical/Biological Anthropology